Articles on Postcolonial Studies
Articles on Postcolonial Studies
This blog reflects on various activities related to Postcolonial Studies, particularly focusing on two significant essays by Ania Loomba: Globalization and the Future of Postcolonial Studies and Future of Postcolonial Studies. Both works are part of our course curriculum under the guidance of Dilip Barad. The discussion explores how globalization reshapes postcolonial identities and how literature and cinema represent these transformations.
Globalization and Postcolonial Identities: Capital, Culture, and the Politics of Representation
Introduction
The article Globalization and the Future of Postcolonial Studies (2022) examines how globalization—particularly after the September 11 attacks—has altered the context of postcolonial thought. It highlights the emergence of what is often described as a “New American Empire,” the expansion of the War on Terror, and the impact of the Fourth Industrial Revolution. These developments complicate discussions about power, resistance, and identity in the contemporary world.
Globalization was once celebrated as a force that would connect societies and promote cooperation. However, it has also produced unequal outcomes characterized by corporate dominance, widening economic disparities, and cultural standardization. For scholars of postcolonial studies, this situation raises an important question: how do previously colonized societies shape their identities within a global capitalist system that seems to blur boundaries while simultaneously reinforcing older hierarchies in new forms?
This essay therefore examines the influence of globalization on postcolonial identities, focusing particularly on its economic and cultural effects. It also links these ideas with examples from literature and film that portray the challenges of identity in a globalized environment.
Globalization and the Changing Framework of Postcolonial Studies
The article argues that globalization cannot be adequately explained using the traditional postcolonial opposition between “center” and “margin.” Instead, globalization operates through networks of movement involving capital, labor, and culture, which challenge fixed borders and national boundaries.
Postcolonial studies, which initially concentrated on European colonial domination, must now address new forms of global power. Scholars Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri describe this system as Empire—a global structure that extends capitalist influence across the world. Unlike earlier colonial empires with clear territorial boundaries, this system is decentralized yet powerful. It allows for hybrid identities and flexible hierarchies while still maintaining subtle forms of control.
The economic dimension of globalization also reveals significant contradictions. Critics such as Joseph Stiglitz and P. Sainath argue that neoliberal policies promoted by institutions like the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank often harm developing countries. These policies replace earlier colonial exploitation with new forms of economic dependence, weakening national sovereignty and reinforcing global inequalities.
From a cultural perspective, globalization tends to privilege Western consumer culture. Thomas Friedman famously described the modern world as “flat,” suggesting increased interconnectedness. However, critics like Stiglitz argue that globalization actually produces a “spiky” world where wealth and influence are concentrated in certain regions while others remain marginalized. As a result, postcolonial identities experience both visibility and erasure: cultures circulate globally through media but are frequently reduced to simplified stereotypes.
Global Capitalism and Its Cultural and Economic Effects
Global capitalism affects postcolonial societies in several ways, particularly in the economic and cultural spheres.
Economic Dependency and Inequality
Many developing countries participate in global supply chains primarily as providers of cheap labor or raw materials. Despite this involvement, they rarely benefit equally from global economic growth. Instead, multinational corporations accumulate profits while local communities face poverty, environmental damage, and unstable employment.
Although globalization promises economic progress, it often deepens inequality and weakens democratic institutions in developing nations.
Cultural Commodification and Identity Crisis
Global media industries promote standardized cultural lifestyles that frequently overshadow local traditions. Indigenous cultural practices may be marginalized as Western consumer culture becomes dominant.
At the same time, globalization also enables new forms of cultural expression and resistance. For instance, young people in cities such as Mumbai or Lagos may adopt global cultural trends while remaining connected to local traditions. This situation produces hybrid identities shaped by the tension between modern global influences and local cultural authenticity.
Together, these processes demonstrate that independence from colonial rule has not necessarily freed postcolonial societies from new forms of global domination.
Postcolonial Identities in Film and Literature
The challenges described in the article are also reflected in various literary and cinematic works that explore postcolonial identity.
Film: The Reluctant Fundamentalist (2012)
Directed by Mira Nair and based on the novel by Mohsin Hamid, this film illustrates how globalization influences personal identity. The protagonist, Changez, is a Pakistani working for an American financial company. Initially successful within the global corporate system, his life changes dramatically after the September 11 attacks, when he becomes viewed with suspicion.
The film highlights how global mobility and opportunity can quickly transform into exclusion when political tensions and cultural prejudice intervene.
Literature: The God of Small Things (1997)
In the novel by Arundhati Roy, the effects of globalization and neoliberal economic reforms on the social structure of Kerala are evident. The growth of tourism and global consumer culture disrupts traditional ways of life while reinforcing caste and class inequalities. The novel anticipates later critiques of globalization by revealing how economic openness can also produce new forms of inequality.
Film: Slumdog Millionaire (2008)
Directed by Danny Boyle, this film presents the story of a young man from the slums of Mumbai who participates in a popular television quiz show. Although the film highlights the possibilities created by global media culture, it has also been criticized for portraying poverty in a way that appeals primarily to Western audiences. In this sense, the film reflects the contradictions of globalization: it offers opportunities while also reinforcing cultural stereotypes.
Implications for Postcolonial Studies
According to the article, postcolonial studies must adapt to what is sometimes called Globalization 4.0, an era shaped by digital technologies, artificial intelligence, and biotechnology.
In this new context, postcolonial scholars must:
Examine emerging forms of empire, including the influence of global technology corporations such as Google, Amazon, and Meta.
Study new forms of resistance, including digital activism and diasporic cultural production.
Maintain critical engagement with both historical colonialism and contemporary global power structures.
As Ania Loomba emphasizes, academic institutions must continue to function as spaces where both historical and contemporary forms of imperial power can be critically examined.
Conclusion
Globalization has significantly transformed postcolonial identities by combining economic dependency with cultural commodification. While global capitalism promises connection and opportunity, it often conceals deeper inequalities. As a result, postcolonial identities frequently become fragmented, caught between empowerment and marginalization.
Works of literature and film—including The Reluctant Fundamentalist and Slumdog Millionaire—illustrate how individuals in postcolonial societies experience these contradictions in everyday life.
In the era of Globalization 4.0, postcolonial critique remains essential for understanding how power continues to operate in new forms. Rather than becoming outdated, postcolonial studies provides important tools for analyzing the relationship between empire, capitalism, and identity. Its ultimate aim is not only to critique the inequalities of globalization but also to imagine more just and inclusive global futures.
Globalization and Postcolonial Identities: Fiction as a Mirror of Resistance and Domination
Introduction
The article Globalization and Fiction: Exploring Postcolonial Critique and Literary Representations (2022) examines the relationship between globalization and literature by analyzing several novels, including Cosmopolis by Don DeLillo, The Fountain at the Center of the World by Robert Newman, Saturday by Ian McEwan, The Ministry of Utmost Happiness by Arundhati Roy, and The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga. These texts reveal the contradictions inherent in globalization: while it promises global connectivity and economic opportunity, it simultaneously produces inequality, cultural marginalization, and political domination.
Drawing on the ideas of scholars such as Joseph Stiglitz, Noam Chomsky, and P. Sainath, the article suggests that fiction offers an important space for postcolonial critique. Through narrative storytelling, literature illustrates how global capitalism influences societies and reshapes individual identities.
This reflection explores how globalization transforms postcolonial identities by examining both its cultural and economic dimensions and by connecting these ideas to literary and cinematic representations that depict these challenges.
Globalization and the Crisis of Postcolonial Identity
Globalization complicates the traditional postcolonial distinction between “center” and “margin.” In Empire, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri argue that the contemporary global order is decentralized. Instead of operating through clearly defined political boundaries, it functions through global networks that influence economies, cultures, and societies worldwide.
This transformation has major consequences for postcolonial identities. Earlier, identities in colonized societies were often shaped by resistance to colonial power. In the current global system, however, individuals must negotiate complex and hybrid identities within interconnected networks of capital and culture.
Joseph Stiglitz criticizes what he calls “market fundamentalism,” arguing that global financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank impose neoliberal economic policies that weaken developing nations and increase inequality. For postcolonial societies already dealing with colonial legacies, these policies often intensify economic instability.
Similarly, P. Sainath argues that market fundamentalism operates not only in economic terms but also culturally. He suggests that it spreads across societies like a form of ideological dominance, gradually eroding local traditions and values while creating social tensions. Consequently, globalization deepens the identity crisis within postcolonial communities, which remain connected to global systems while simultaneously experiencing alienation and exploitation.
Economic Dimensions: Dependency and Inequality
Global capitalism often reinforces economic dependency in postcolonial nations. Many developing countries serve as sources of inexpensive labor and raw materials for multinational corporations.
Literary works vividly portray these dynamics. In The Fountain at the Center of the World, Robert Newman situates the narrative around the protests against the World Trade Organization in Seattle in 1999. The novel reveals how corporate globalization exploits workers in Mexico, spreads disease, and undermines democratic processes.
Similarly, The White Tiger by Aravind Adiga portrays the journey of Balram Halwai, who rises from being a driver to a businessman in a rapidly globalizing India. His story exposes corruption, social inequality, and the harsh competition created by neoliberal economic reforms. The novel demonstrates how globalization produces both beneficiaries and victims, reshaping class and caste relationships.
These literary works reinforce the argument that although globalization appears to eliminate boundaries, it continues to sustain deep economic inequalities reminiscent of colonial patterns of dependency.
Cultural Dimensions: Commodification and Resistance
Beyond economics, globalization significantly influences culture. Literature often illustrates how identities become commercialized within global cultural systems while also highlighting forms of resistance.
In Cosmopolis, Don DeLillo depicts billionaire Eric Packer traveling across New York City during anti-globalization demonstrations. His luxurious limousine symbolizes the excess of global capitalism, while the surrounding protests represent resistance to corporate dominance. Through this contrast, the novel reflects the tensions within global capitalism.
Similarly, Saturday by Ian McEwan connects the global political climate—particularly protests against the Iraq War—with the everyday life of a London neurosurgeon named Henry Perowne. By intertwining international politics with personal experiences, the novel illustrates how global events influence individual identities and everyday life.
In The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, Arundhati Roy expands this critique within the Indian context. The novel interweaves narratives of marginalized communities affected by displacement, development projects, and state violence. Roy demonstrates how globalization intersects with nationalism, militarization, and social inequality.
Through these works, literature reveals that globalization both homogenizes culture and generates resistance. While global capitalism destabilizes identities, fiction provides a platform for voices often marginalized by dominant economic systems.
Theoretical Framework and Cinematic Example
The article also refers to the concept of Globalization 4.0, proposed by Klaus Schwab. This phase of globalization is characterized by the integration of digital technologies, biological innovations, and physical infrastructures. While such developments promise progress, they also introduce new challenges such as environmental crises, widening inequality, and the growing influence of multinational corporations like Google and Amazon.
A relevant cinematic example illustrating these dynamics is the film The Reluctant Fundamentalist, directed by Mira Nair and based on the novel by Mohsin Hamid. The story follows Changez, a Pakistani professional working in a corporate environment in the United States. After the September 11 attacks, his social position changes dramatically as he becomes viewed with suspicion.
The film illustrates the paradox of globalization: individuals may initially benefit from global mobility and opportunity, yet geopolitical tensions can quickly transform them into outsiders. Changez’s experience reflects how postcolonial subjects navigate systems that promise inclusion but often reproduce marginalization.
Broader Implications for Postcolonial Thought
Analyzing globalization through the lens of postcolonial theory highlights several important insights.
First, the concept of empire must be redefined. In the contemporary world, power is less tied to territorial control and more connected to economic, technological, and corporate networks.
Second, literature captures the emergence of new forms of resistance. Protests against organizations such as the WTO or against wars like the Iraq War demonstrate how anti-globalization movements echo earlier anti-colonial struggles, though they now operate on a global scale.
Third, postcolonial identities are increasingly hybrid. Migration, global media, and digital communication shape identities that combine local traditions with global influences. While such hybridity allows creative cultural expression, it may also risk weakening local cultural identities.
Finally, fiction remains an essential tool for understanding globalization. By portraying everyday experiences, literature bridges theoretical discussions about global economics with human stories of inequality, ambition, and resistance.
Conclusion
Globalization reshapes postcolonial identities through economic dependency and cultural commodification. As the article demonstrates, fiction provides an important space for examining and challenging these transformations.
Novels such as Cosmopolis, The Fountain at the Center of the World, Saturday, The Ministry of Utmost Happiness, and The White Tiger reveal how global capitalism influences daily life while simultaneously generating forms of resistance.
Similarly, the film The Reluctant Fundamentalist highlights the fragmented identities created by globalization, illustrating the uncertainty of belonging in a world shaped by political tensions and economic power.
Ultimately, postcolonial studies remains crucial for critically examining globalization. By exposing its inequalities and contradictions, it encourages the development of a more just global order in which cultural diversity and social justice are valued rather than subordinated to market forces.
Postcolonial Studies, the Anthropocene, and Environmental Justice
Introduction
Postcolonial studies has traditionally focused on the legacies of colonial rule and cultural domination. However, in the present era of environmental crisis—often described as the Anthropocene—the field must also address ecological issues. According to Dipesh Chakrabarty, the global climate crisis represents a “planetary problem” that challenges earlier theoretical frameworks of globalization, capital, and subaltern resistance. Scholars were largely unprepared to deal with the scale of ecological catastrophe that climate change represents.
The intersection between postcolonial studies and environmental concerns highlights how communities in formerly colonized regions, particularly in the Global South, are disproportionately affected by environmental degradation and climate change. These crises reveal how colonial histories continue to shape contemporary environmental inequalities.
Colonialism and Ecological Exploitation
Vandana Shiva argues that colonial rule—and the global capitalist systems that followed it—played a major role in destroying ecological diversity. Colonial economies were built on the extraction of natural resources, which disrupted sustainable local cultures and traditional relationships with land and water.
This process was not only economic but also ecological. Indigenous communities that depended on forests, rivers, and agricultural systems were displaced, and their environmentally balanced ways of life were undermined. Understanding this relationship between colonial exploitation and ecological damage is essential for linking postcolonial studies with environmental debates.
Spatial Amnesia and Forgotten Histories
The concept of “spatial amnesia,” developed by Rob Nixon, helps explain how many Western environmental narratives overlook the colonial histories of landscapes. In these narratives, natural environments are often portrayed as untouched wilderness, ignoring the fact that indigenous populations were displaced from these areas through colonial violence.
As a result, environmental discourse sometimes celebrates conservation while neglecting the historical injustices experienced by indigenous communities. This form of historical forgetting continues in modern development and conservation projects that remove local populations from their lands in the name of environmental protection.
Climate Vulnerability of Colonized Communities
The experiences of Ken Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni people in Nigeria demonstrate how communities in formerly colonized regions continue to face environmental injustice. Oil extraction in the Niger Delta caused severe pollution of land and water while generating profits for multinational corporations. Local communities, however, suffered the consequences of environmental destruction.
In India, the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) represents resistance against large dam projects that have displaced thousands of tribal and rural communities. Such development initiatives reproduce forms of “internal colonialism,” where marginalized groups within independent nations experience exploitation similar to colonial domination.
These cases illustrate that the poorest and most marginalized populations often bear the greatest burden of climate change and environmental degradation in the name of development.
Film as Reflection: The Narmada Movement on Screen
The struggle surrounding the Narmada River has also been represented in cinema. The documentary film A Narmada Diary (1995) portrays the displacement of tribal communities and the irreversible ecological damage caused by dam construction.
The film reflects the idea of internal colonialism discussed in the article. It shows how governments and corporations justify development projects as progress, while indigenous and rural communities suffer the consequences. Through such representations, cinema becomes an important medium for understanding how environmental destruction in postcolonial societies is connected to both colonial histories and global capitalist interests.
Towards a Postcolonial Universalism
Dipesh Chakrabarty suggests that the Anthropocene requires a broader perspective that considers humanity as a collective species. Climate change affects all living beings, although its impacts are distributed unequally across regions and communities.
From a postcolonial perspective, this situation calls for a new form of universal thinking—one that acknowledges the historical processes of colonial exploitation, capitalist expansion, and displacement that have shaped environmental crises. By connecting ecological justice with the goals of decolonization, postcolonial studies provides valuable insights for imagining more equitable and sustainable futures.
Conclusion
American Dominance Through Rambo and Bond: A Postcolonial Critique
Introduction
Hollywood cinema has often worked as an influential form of soft power that shapes how audiences around the world perceive the United States and its allies. Film franchises such as Rambo and James Bond demonstrate how popular cinema can project Western geopolitical authority. Their narratives frequently align with American foreign policy, particularly during the Cold War and the era of globalization. In this way, entertainment becomes a medium that subtly promotes Western political power and ideological dominance.
Projection of American Dominance
The Rambo films clearly reflect American political interests. In particular, Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985) and Rambo III (1988) reinterpret historical conflicts in ways that favor the United States. In First Blood Part II, the Vietnam War is rewritten so that American soldiers appear as heroic figures who were betrayed by their government but remain morally justified. This reinterpretation attempts to restore American pride after the trauma of the Vietnam War while presenting communism as the main enemy. Similarly, Rambo III depicts John Rambo helping the Mujahideen fighters in Afghanistan against Soviet forces, closely reflecting the United States’ real support for Afghan rebels during the Soviet-Afghan War. Through such narratives, American intervention is portrayed as a noble mission to protect freedom.
The James Bond series, although produced in Britain, also reflects Western political interests that often coincide with American strategies. For example, The Living Daylights (1987) features Bond assisting Afghan rebels during the Soviet conflict, mirroring Western geopolitical agendas. In Licence to Kill (1989), the storyline focuses on the issue of drug trafficking, echoing American concerns about international drug cartels. Later, Tomorrow Never Dies (1997) explores themes related to media power and global influence, which resonate with the growing dominance of Western—especially American—media networks in the post-Cold War period.
Mechanisms of Soft Power
These film franchises promote Western dominance through several key mechanisms. First, they project a specific ideology by presenting America and its allies as defenders of freedom, democracy, and human rights, thereby placing them at the moral center of international conflicts. Second, their global popularity helps establish cultural hegemony by spreading Western values and perspectives to audiences around the world. Third, their massive commercial success demonstrates the economic influence of American cultural industries in global markets. Finally, these films shape global perceptions by portraying Western military and intelligence organizations as powerful, efficient, and morally justified institutions.
Postcolonial Critique
From a postcolonial viewpoint, such narratives can be understood as forms of cinematic imperialism. By representing the United States as a generous and heroic global leader, Hollywood often ignores or suppresses perspectives from the Global South. The blog also mentions journalist Palki Sharma’s suggestion that Bollywood should learn from Hollywood’s global influence. However, this idea raises concerns because copying Hollywood’s approach may reproduce the same hegemonic narratives that postcolonial criticism aims to question. Instead, postcolonial theory encourages film industries such as Bollywood to challenge dominant power structures by creating alternative stories that highlight marginalized voices and diverse experiences.
Other Examples
Many other films follow similar patterns by portraying the United States as the primary force responsible for maintaining global stability. Stories centered on military heroism, anti-drug campaigns, or media power frequently repeat the idea that America is the protector of world order. However, as the blog suggests, the true strength of global cinema lies not in imitating these narratives but in critically examining them and encouraging more varied and inclusive storytelling.
Conclusion
The Rambo and James Bond film franchises demonstrate how Hollywood cinema can promote American power by connecting popular entertainment with geopolitical agendas. Through their storylines, these films frequently depict the United States as a heroic force that protects freedom and acts as a moral authority in global conflicts, while alternative viewpoints are often ignored or minimized. From a postcolonial perspective, this pattern can be seen as a form of cultural hegemony in which cinema supports Western dominance. Postcolonial criticism therefore encourages film industries such as Bollywood not to imitate these narrative patterns. Instead, they should focus on producing stories that challenge dominant ideologies, question global power structures, and represent a wider range of voices and perspectives in world cinema
Appropriating Tribal Resistance in RRR: A Postcolonial Reflection
Introduction
RRR reimagines the historical figures Alluri Sitarama Raju and Komaram Bheem, who are remembered for resisting oppressive political powers. The film portrays them as heroic nationalist figures fighting against British colonial rule. However, this representation raises important questions about how mainstream cinema reshapes and appropriates subaltern histories. By transforming their local struggles—centered on land, forests, and indigenous survival—into a large-scale nationalist epic, the film celebrates national pride but risks overlooking the deeper environmental and tribal concerns that originally defined their resistance.
From Local Resistance to Nationalist Reframing
Historically, Raju’s rebellion was connected to the impact of the Madras Forest Act, which deprived Adivasi communities of their traditional rights to forest resources. Similarly, Bheem resisted the rule of the Mir Osman Ali Khan and mobilized tribal resistance with the slogan “Jal, Jangal, Zameen” (Water, Forest, Land). Their struggles were rooted in protecting indigenous communities, land, and ecological resources. In the film, however, these historically specific conflicts are reshaped into a unified nationalist struggle against the British Empire. While this narrative strengthens the idea of national unity, it also simplifies and marginalizes the original environmental and cultural motivations behind their resistance.
Displacement and Its Deeper Meaning
Displacement in indigenous contexts goes far beyond physical relocation. As highlighted by writer Annie Zaidi, displacement involves losing access to rivers, grazing lands, forests, traditional livelihoods, and even the ability to protest. These losses reflect the reality that many indigenous communities have historically faced. By not addressing these lived experiences, the film reduces tribal resistance to a patriotic battle against colonial rule, overlooking the deeper struggles connected to environmental survival and cultural identity.
Nationalism and Environmental Justice
Although nationalist themes create a powerful cinematic narrative, they can overshadow the continuing struggles of tribal communities today. While the film celebrates resistance against British colonialism, it does not explore how many indigenous groups still experience displacement, land dispossession, and environmental exploitation due to modern industrial and state-driven development. As a result, figures like Raju and Bheem risk being remembered primarily as national symbols rather than as representatives of ongoing environmental and social justice movements.
Contribution and Limitations in Postcolonial Context
Films like RRR contribute positively to postcolonial discourse by reclaiming colonized figures and presenting them as heroes who resisted imperial power. However, they also risk weakening this contribution when complex historical struggles are simplified into grand nationalist spectacles. By neglecting the continuing importance of jal, jungle, jameen, the film misses the opportunity to connect historical resistance with contemporary movements that fight for ecological protection and indigenous rights.
Other Narratives of Resistance
Stories about indigenous or subaltern resistance often face a similar challenge. Filmmakers can either highlight localized struggles related to land, culture, and survival, or reinterpret them within larger national or global narratives. When the latter approach is chosen, as in RRR, the result may dilute the voices of marginalized communities and push aside key issues such as environmental destruction, displacement, and indigenous autonomy.
Conclusion
RRR succeeds as a visually powerful story of unity and resistance against colonial rule. However, it also represents a missed opportunity to emphasize the environmental and social struggles that shaped the historical legacies of Raju and Bheem. By incorporating their resistance into a broader nationalist framework, the film obscures the ongoing problems of displacement and ecological damage faced by tribal communities. A postcolonial perspective therefore reveals that while such narratives can generate national pride, they may also weaken the transformative message of indigenous resistance by ignoring its relevance to present-day struggles for environmental justice and survival.
References
Dilip Barad. “GLOBALIZATION AND THE FUTURE OF POSTCOLONIAL STUDIES.” ResearchGate, Oct. 2022, www.researchgate.net/publication/376374570_GLOBALIZATION_AND_THE_FUTURE_OF_POSTCOLONIAL_STUDIES. Accessed 15 Sept. 2025.
Dilip Barad. “GLOBALIZATION AND FICTION: EXPLORING POSTCOLONIAL CRITIQUE AND LITERARY REPRESENTATIONS.” ResearchGate, Oct. 2022, www.researchgate.net/publication/376371617_GLOBALIZATION_AND_FICTION_EXPLORING_POSTCOLONIAL_CRITIQUE_AND_LITERARY_REPRESENTATIONS. Accessed 15 Sept. 2025.
Barad, Dilip. “(PDF) Postcolonial Studies in the Anthropocene: Bridging Perspectives for a Sustainable Future.” Researchgate, Oct. 2022, www.researchgate.net/publication/373734635_Postcolonial_Studies_in_the_Anthropocene_Bridging_Perspectives_for_a_Sustainable_Future. Accessed 15 Sept. 2025.
Barad, Dilip. “Heroes or Hegemons? The Celluloid Empire of Rambo and Bond in America’s Geopolitical Narrative.” Researchgate, Aug. 2024, www.researchgate.net/publication/383415195_Heroes_or_Hegemons_The_Celluloid_Empire_of_Rambo_and_Bond_in_America’s_Geopolitical_Narrative. Accessed 15 Sept. 2025.
Barad, Dilip. “Reimagining Resistance: The Appropriation of Tribal Heroes in Rajamouli’s RRR.” Researchgate, Aug. 2024, www.researchgate.net/publication/383603395_Reimagining_Resistance_The_Appropriation_of_Tribal_Heroes_in_Rajamouli’s_RRR. Accessed 15 Sept. 2025.
